Formation of Close-in Neptunes around Low-mass Stars through Breaking Resonant Chains

Conventional planet formation theories predict a paucity of massive planets around small stars, especially very low-mass (0.1‑0.3 M _⊙) mid-to-late M dwarfs. Such tiny stars are expected to form planets of terrestrial sizes but not much bigger. However, this expectation is challenged by the recent discovery of LHS 3154 b, a planet with period of 3.7 days and minimum mass of 13.2 M _⊕ orbiting a 0.11 M _⊙ star. Here, we propose that close-in Neptune-mass planets like LHS 3154 b formed through an anomalous series of mergers from a primordial compact system of super-Earths. We perform simulations within the context of the "breaking the chains" scenario, in which super-Earths initially form in tightly spaced chains of mean-motion resonances before experiencing dynamical instabilities and collisions. Planets as massive and close-in as LHS 3154 b (M _p ∼ 12‑20 M _⊕, P < 7 days) are produced in ∼1% of simulated systems, in broad agreement with their low observed occurrence. These results suggest that such planets do not require particularly unusual formation conditions but rather are an occasional by-product of a process that is already theorized to explain compact multiplanet systems. Interestingly, our simulated systems with LHS 3154 b-like planets also contain smaller planets at around ∼30 days, offering a possible test of this hypothesis.