Winter stream temperature in the rain-on-snow zone

Stream temperature is a principal determinant of aquatic ecosystem composition and productivity. There are increasing concerns that changes in land cover and climatic conditions could produce changes in stream thermal regimes that would be deleterious to existing aquatic communities. Most stream temperature research has focused on summer periods and few studies have examined winter periods despite the growing recognition of its biological importance. The winter thermal regimes of Pacific Northwest headwater streams, which provide vital winter habitat for salmonids and their food sources, may be particularly sensitive to changes in climate because they can remain ice-free throughout the year and are often located in rain-on-snow zones. This study examined winter stream temperature patterns and controls in small headwater catchments within the rain-on-snow zone at the Malcolm Knapp Research Forest, near Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Two working hypotheses were addressed by this study: (1) winter stream temperatures are primarily controlled by advective fluxes associated with runoff processes and (2) stream temperatures should be depressed during rain-on-snow events, compared to rain on bare ground, due to the cooling effect of rain passing through the snowpack prior to infiltrating the soil or being delivered to the stream as saturation-excess overland flow. These hypotheses were tested statistically using historical stream temperature data and modelled snowpack dynamics for a forested headwater catchment. When snow was not present, daily stream temperature during winter rain events tended to increase with increasing air temperature. However, when snow was present, stream temperature was capped at about 5 °C, regardless of air temperature. This historical analysis was complemented with detailed field data collected during the winter of 2011-2012 from an ongoing field study in a partially logged catchment. Stream temperature response to a large rain-on-snow event was compared to a rain-only event of similar magnitude. During the rain-on-snow event, stream temperature exhibited less variation and was similar to soil temperature measured at a near-stream site known to produce substantial subsurface stormflow. Both the historical and field studies support our hypotheses. A key implication is that climate warming may generate higher winter stream temperatures in the rain-on-snow zone due to both increased rain temperature and reduced cooling effect of snow cover.