Toward a Deterministic Model of Planetary Formation. VI. Dynamical Interaction and Coagulation of Multiple Rocky Embryos and Super-Earth Systems around Solar-type Stars

Radial velocity and transit surveys indicate that solar-type stars bear super-Earths, with masses up to ~20 M _⊕ and periods up to a few months, that are more common than those with Jupiter-mass gas giants. In many cases, these super-Earths are members of multiple-planet systems in which their mutual dynamical interaction has influenced their formation and evolution. In this paper, we modify an existing numerical population synthesis scheme to take into account protoplanetary embryos' interaction with their evolving natal gaseous disks, as well as their close scatterings and resonant interaction with each other. We show that it is possible for a group of compact embryos to emerge interior to the ice line, grow, migrate, and congregate into closely packed convoys which stall in the proximity of their host stars. After the disk-gas depletion, they undergo orbit crossing, close scattering, and giant impacts to form multiple rocky Earths or super-Earths in non-resonant orbits around ~0.1 AU with moderate eccentricities of ~0.01-0.1. We suggest that most refractory super-Earths with periods in the range of a few days to weeks may have formed through this process. These super-Earths differ from Neptune-like ice giants by their compact sizes and lack of a substantial gaseous envelope.