Nativeness is not binary—a graduated terminology for native and non-native species in the Anthropocene

With novel ecosystems becoming the norm, it is increasingly necessary to re-evaluate what is meant by "restoration." An important aspect concerns which species are defined as native and, by extension, non-native. In order to better inform restoration actions, we have here devised a classification system of 10 graduated terms describing intermediate states of nativeness, which can be applied to different organisms based on their histories, origins, and impacts.