Identifying the environmental and anthropogenic causes, distribution, and intensity of human rhesus macaque conflict in Nepal

Reducing conflict between humans and wildlife is considered a top conservation priority. However, increasingly human-induced disturbances across natural landscapes have escalated encounters between humans and wildlife. In Nepal, forests have been destroyed, fragmented, and developed for human settlements, agricultural production, and urban centers for decades. As a result, human-wildlife conflict, in the form of crop-raiding, livestock predation, and injuries to humans and wildlife, is common throughout the country. In particular, crop-raiding by macaques is an increasingly common form of human-wildlife conflict. Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) have been identified as a top ten crop-raiding wildlife species in Nepal. In order to better understand the nationwide distribution and intensity of human-rhesus macaque conflict (HRMC), we conducted an extensive literature review of reported incidences of HRMC during the period 2000 to 2021 in Nepal. We also created an online survey to obtain nationwide data on the location and severity of HRMC, and modeled the set of ecological factors that affect habitat suitability for rhesus macaques. An ensemble of three different species distribution model (SDM) algorithms were used to analyze these data. We found that almost 44% of Nepal's land area contains suitable habitat for rhesus macaques, with less than 8% of all suitable habitat located in protected national parks. As humans continue to alter and fragment natural landscapes, HRMC in Nepal has intensified. At present, nearly 15% of the country's land area in which human settlements are permitted, is characterized by moderate or high rates of HRMC. We argue that prioritizing programs of forest restoration, strategic management plans designed to connect isolated forest fragments with high rhesus macaque population densities, creating government programs that compensate farmers for income lost due to crop-raiding, and educational outreach that informs local villagers of the importance of conservation and protecting biodiversity, offer the most effective solutions to reduce HRMC in Nepal.