Cobalt mining and the corporate outsourcing of responsibility in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Formalization of artisanal cobalt mining in the DRC led by mining companies. Mixed artisanal and industrial mines foster flexible and wageless labor regimes. Mining companies outsource labor costs and shift risks to miners. This "corporate outsourcing of responsibility" extends miners' vulnerability and insecurity. Human security approaches call for a holistic and inclusive view of formalization strategies.