Satellite observation of winter season subsurface liquid melt water retention on the Greenland ice sheet using spectroradiometer and scatterometer data

The recently discovered perennial firn aquifer (PFA) represents a new glacier facie and a previously undefined liquid water storage mechanism on the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS). The current hypothesis suggests that at least two geophysical processes control the formation of the PFA: 1) high melt rates that saturate snow and firn layers with liquid water during the melt season, and 2) high snow accumulation rates that subsequently insulate this saturated layer allowing it to be retained in liquid form during the winter season. The PFA is potentially an important component in ice sheet mass and energy budget calculations, however, large-scale observations linking surface melt, subsurface liquid melt water retention, and the PFA currently do not exist. Satellite-borne spectroradiometers and scatterometers are frequently used to detect the presence of liquid water content over the GrIS. The sensor's penetration depth is dependent on the frequency (which determines wavelength) and time-varying geophysical properties (which determine absorption and scattering characteristics). At shorter spectral wavelengths, penetration depths are limited at the interface between the ice sheet surface and the atmosphere. Spectroradiometer-derived retrievals of liquid water content represent an integrated response on the order of a few millimeters. At longer microwave wavelengths (C- and Ku-band), penetration depths are increased. Scatterometer-derived retrievals of liquid water content represent an integrated response on the order of a few centimeters to several meters. We combine spectroradiometer data acquired from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer aboard Terra and Aqua (MODIS) and C- and Ku-band scatterometer data acquired from MetOP-A (ASCAT) and OceanSAT-2 (OSCAT) to investigate the spatiotemporal variability of subsurface liquid water content on the GrIS. Penetration depth differences are exploited to distinguish between the detection of liquid water content controlled by surface heat flux and the detection of subsurface liquid water content controlled by the retention process. Surface freeze-up is identified using MODIS-derived ice surface temperatures. We then identify distinct microwave signatures suggesting the presence of subsurface liquid water content, characterize the stratigraphy and geophysical processes controlling the observed response, and derive a retrieval algorithm using a simple radiative transfer model. Over the 4 year time series (2009-2013), results indicate subsurface liquid melt water persists within Ku-band penetration depth up to ~1 month and within C-band penetration depth between ~1-5 months following surface-freeze-up. Detection occurs exclusively in regions where the PFA has previously been mapped using field (Arctic Circle Traverse) and airborne (IceBridge) observations and the spatial extent is consistent with regional climate model (RACMO2) simulations.