Cloud climatology at the Andes/Amazon Transition in Peru

The climate of tropical montane regions is complex but may be sensitive to global change. We examine the local and regional cloud climatology of a region of the tropical Andes in Peru using corrected ISCCP (International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project) DX cloud product (1983-2008), MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) MOD35 visible cloud flags (2000-2008) and ground-based cloud observations. The results were compared for three zones: highlands (grassland), eastern slope (the montane forest) and lowlands (tropical forest). We found that in the dry season (JJA) the study area is part of a localised region of increased cloud frequency relative to the highlands, lowlands and other parts the eastern slope, which is likely to result from the mean low-level wind trajectory and diurnal upslope flow. The highlands exhibited the greatest amplitude mean annual cycle of cloud frequency, with a minimum in June for all times of day. This was linked to the effect of the annual cycle of upper level zonal winds, with persistent westerlies in the austral winter suppressing cloud formation at higher elevations. Higher lowland cloud frequencies than those on the eastern slope in the morning in May and June suggest the persistence of nighttime downslope flows and low-level convergence at lower altitudes. We also examined trends and variability in cloud cover for the three zones, and their relationship to sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Lowland cloud frequencies were significantly correlated with tropical North Atlantic (TNA) SSTs in February, March, August and September, but this was reduced after detrending, whereas the eastern slope and the highlands were not significantly correlated with tropical North Atlantic SSTs. Pacific SST correlations were highest for the eastern slope and highlands from February to April. Indian Ocean SST anomalies were significantly correlated with dry season cloud frequency for the lowlands and highlands, which may be related to Rossby Wave propagation from the Indian Ocean via the South Pacific to South America. There are significant decreasing trends in cloud frequency on the lowlands in January, March and September and in March on the eastern slope, with a possible link to an increasing trend in TNA SSTs in the late dry season. We suggest that continued increases in TNA SSTs could further reduce cloud frequency in the lowlands adjacent to the montane forest in the late dry season at least. In addition, predicted increases in the occurrence of El Niño events would lead to decreased cloud frequency on the eastern slope and highlands in the future.