Methane-related microbial processes and metabolic stratification in a terrestrial mud volcano, southwestern Taiwan

Mud volcanoes are distinct geological features with fluid, sediment and hydrocarbon-enriched gas mixtures emitted from deep sedimentary environments. Without microbial attenuation in the water column, methane emission to atmosphere from terrestrial mud volcanoes constitutes a significant proportion to the global methane inventory. Microorganisms mediating methane transformation would be particularly enriched in such environments. Their activity, distribution, and diversity involved remain not well-constrained. At Shin-Yan-Ny-Hu Mud Volcanoes (SYNHMV) of southwestern Taiwan, we performed series of measurements and analyses on the pore water and eruptive water samples using geochemical and molecular approaches, in order to determine microbial processes and community assemblages responsible for methane transformation. Geochemical measurements indicated that sulfate depletion was companied with methane increase as the depth increased. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) more depleted in 13C was observed at the depth of sulfate-methane transition zone (SMT, at ~12cm depth) than at other depth intervals. These characteristics of methane, sulfate, and DIC isotope profiles and the presence of ANME-1 sequences showed a high similarity with those of marine sediments, indicating the existence of active anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM). From bottom to top, the increasing δ13C values of methane with the greatest value occurring in the eruptive surface water suggests methanogenesis and/or methane oxidation over the entire depth range. The contribution of microbial methane could be supported by molecular data of which methanogen-related archaea distributed throughout the entire depths, and the community structures were characterized by Methanosarcinales dominating at shallow depths and Methanomicrobiales dominating in deep sediments. The affinities and activities to substrate addition for methanogenesis appeared to be depth-dependent. Bacterial sequences affiliated with methane-oxidizing gamma-proteobacteria members were mainly observed in the uppermost sediment samples. Delta-proteobacteria 16S sequences including Desulfuromonadales, Syntrophus, and Desulfomonales constituted significant proportions along the entire depth range. These findings concluded that methanogens were ubiquitously dispersed and actively expressed in the near-surface sediment of the terrestrial mud volcano while aerobic and anaerobic methane oxidation accounted for the methane consumption above SMT. Methane ascending from deep-reservoir would be altered substantially by microbial processes in both isotope compositions and abundances.