Quantitative Applications of Deep-Sea Raman Spectroscopy: Geochemistry of 1,4- thioxane in sea water

We have developed quantitative Raman spectroscopic techniques for the novel detection of dissolved species in sea water to determine their fundamental properties. In this example we use a field-deployable Raman system to determine the solubility of 1,4-thioxane (TO) in sea water as 0.65 to 0.63 mol/kg H2O between 4.5°C and 25.0°C (which varies greatly from an earlier report of 2.75 mol/kg H2O), and to assess the conditions under which it may form a hydrate. TO is of unusual environmental interest as a breakdown product of the chemical weapon mustard gas, and thus development of non-contact field- deployable sensing techniques is highly desirable. Raman spectroscopy has typically been considered as only a qualitative technique due to the complexity of the optical path and the substantial changes in components between different instruments. We show here that by self-referencing to the ubiquitous water peaks (the water ν2 mode from 1500 to 1800 cm-1) we can derive quantitative information with a precision of ± 4%, and provide essential new information. The long-term fate of large quantities of chemical weapons disposed of in the ocean some 50 years ago is poorly known. Part of this lacking knowledge can be attributed to the hazards associated with the direct study of these materials leaving ocean scientists vulnerable when sampling in inadequately marked sites. Mustard gas (1,1'-thiobis[2-chloroethane]) represents the largest tonnage of material disposed of until the 1972 London Convention banned such activities. Thus there is strong interest in determining the fate and lifetime of these materials, their decomposition products, and the extent of the affected zones. We have earlier shown that TO forms a hydrate with a help-gas, such as methane or hydrogen sulfide, and that the temperature, pressure and reducing conditions required for hydrate formation commonly occur at known disposal sites. In fact, a mixed TO hydrate is more stable than methane hydrate by almost 10°C. Here we show that in the presence of hydrate formation, as with other hydrate guest molecules, the TO solubility trend was reversed and solubility decreased in response to lower temperatures. The relatively low solubility in water coupled with the ability to form a hydrate within marine sediments can greatly decrease molecular mobility and increase chemical lifetime. Mixing will reduce concentrations of TO in the ocean water column below the detection limits established here. But the solubility data reveals the concentrations that will characterize marine pore waters at such sites, and these are readily detectable. Development of pore water Raman sensing techniques are underway.