A Synthesis of Late Miocene Through Pliocene Evolution of Glaciation as Inferred From Deep Sea Geochemical Records

During the Miocene through Pliocene climate evolved from an early Miocene climatic optimum (~16 Ma) followed by major expansion of the Antarctic ice sheet during the middle Miocene (~15 Ma), to an early Pliocene interval of relative global warmth (5 to 3.5 Ma) followed by the onset of wide spread Northern Hemisphere Glaciation during the late Pliocene (~3 Ma). Here I review the evolution of Miocene/Pliocene glaciation as recorded in the geochemistry of deep sea sediments. Much of what we know about past climate change comes from the oxygen isotopic composition of benthic foraminifera. Although this proxy outlines large scale changes in the degree of polar glaciation, the absolute magnitude and the relationship between ice extent and ocean temperature cannot be uniquely determined. The recent development of foraminiferal Mg/Ca ratios as a proxy for paleotemperatures provides an opportunity to improve our understanding of Miocene/Pliocene climate change on both tectonic and orbital time scales. For example, paired δ18O and Mg/Ca deep water records show that middle Miocene expansion of ice predates cooling of Southern Ocean surface waters providing evidence for the importance of heat and moisture transport in Antarctic ice growth (Shevenell and Kennett, 2007). Relatively few deep sea studies have focused on late Miocene climate, and foraminiferal δ18O records do not support major oceanographic and climatic changes. Although, the late Miocene may have been a time of global cooling, especially in the circum- Antarctic region, with the establishment of a grounded West Antarctic ice sheet. The early Pliocene, in contrast, has been the focus of much research because of the relevance to understanding intervals of sustained global climatic warmth with near modern-day tectonic configuration, warm upwelling regions, and elevated CO2 levels with respect to the pre-industrial atmosphere. The deep sea δ18O record, however, suggests that Antarctic ice sheet size remained relatively stable during this particular warm period. Early Pliocene climatic warmth ends with the beginning of wide spread Northern Hemisphere Glaciation at ~3 Ma, which is followed by a time of enhanced sensitivity of ice sheet variations to obliquity forcing. Although a detailed picture of Miocene/Pliocene evolution of the cryosphere has emerged, there are a number of open questions such as the causes of middle Miocene climatic warmth, the stability of the East Antarctic ice sheet during the early Pliocene, and the triggers for significant Northern Hemisphere Glaciation during the late Pliocene.