Seasonal variations in geochemistry of the hyperacidic Ijen Crater Lake, East Java, Indonesia

Kawah Ijen is a typical crater lake in a tropical climate where there is a balance between the volume of atmospheric precipitation and the level of water in the lake. The crater lake has a regular oval form (600 x 1000 m²), is 180 m deep, and contains about 36 million m³ of turquoise-green colored water (pH ~ 0.2). The water contains extremely high Cl, SO₄, F concentrations, the maximum values being about 2,500 mg/kg, 80,000 mg/kg and 1,300 mg/kg respectively. Twenty-four samples of lake water taken during August 1996 (dry season) show most major elements to be homogeneously distributed throughout the lake at this time to a depth of 165 m within a standard deviation of less than 10 %. Homogeneity is most likely due to thorough mixing driven by thermal convection. However, iron and sulphur do not behave in the same way showing variations up to 14 % variation. Monthly monitoring of surface water (1997-2001) shows temporal fluctuations in acidity (pH 0 ~ 0.6) and water level, concentrations of major elements, temperature (20 ~ 45° C). Between 1976-1996, the water level varied by ~ 15 m; and from 1997-2001 by ~ 10 m. The onset of the wet season may coincide with an episodical decrease, a spike, in major element concentrations up to 70 % of their dry season value. This spike occurs annually at the lowest temperature and highest degree of dilution, indicates of the influence of rainfall. However, volcanic gases entering beneath the lake bottom may have added to these temporal changes in the lake especially during phreatic eruptions. Shallow earthquake records do not indicate correlations between seismic activity and chemical changes in the lake. Temporal variations of lake surface temperature show good agreement with major element variations in surface water. Crater lake surface water collected at three points on August 1996, March 2001, May 2001 revealed that the surface water was homogenous in the dry and rainy season within a standard deviation below 7 %. The geochemical and seasonal variations in the lake are important in assessing the environmental impact of acidic water that drains in to the Banyupahit-Banyuputih River, particularly in the Asembagus area (40 km from the lake) where the water is used for irrigation. The fluoride level in the 55 well water samples was high. In 50 % of the samples it was above the 1.5 mg/kg limit recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). Ratios of B/F, B\Cl, B/SO4 as conservative elements indicate that Banyuputih River contaminates the groundwater.