Numerical simulations of protostellar jets

Molecular jets announce the successful birth of a protostar. We develop here a model for the jets and their environments, adapting a multi-dimensional hydrocode to follow the molecular-atomic transitions of hydrogen. We examine powerful outflows into dense gas. The cocoon which forms around a jet is a very low density cavity of atomic gas. These atoms originate from strong shocks which dissociate the molecules. The rest of the molecules are either within the jet or swept up into very thin layers. Pulsed jets produce wider cavities and molecular layers which can grow onto resolvable jet knots. Three-dimensional simulations produce shocked molecular knots, distorted and multiple bow shocks and arclike structures. Spectroscopic and excitation properties of the hydrogen molecules are calculated. In the infrared, strong emission is seen from shocks within the jet (when pulsed) as well as from discrete regions along the cavity walls. Excitation, as measured by line ratios, is not generally constant. Broad double-peaked, shifted emission lines are predicted. The jet model for protostellar outflows is confronted with the constraints imposed by CO spectroscopic observations. From the three dimensional simulations we calculate line profiles and construct position-velocity diagrams for the (low-J) CO transitions. We find (1) the profiles imply power law variation of integrated brightness with velocity over a wide range of velocities, (2) the velocity field resembles a `Hubble Law' and (3) a hollow-shell structure at low velocities becomes an elongated lobe at high velocities. Deviations from the simple power law dependence of integrated brightness versus velocity occur at high velocities in our simulations. The curve first dips to a shallow minimum and then rises rapidly and peaks sharply. Reanalysis of the NGC 2264G and Cepheus E data confirm these predictions. We identify these two features with a jet-ambient shear layer and the jet itself. A deeper analysis reveals that the power-law index is an indicator of the evolutionary stage: a profile steepens with time. Also, the CO excitation temperature changes along the bow walls and thus a CO line intensity does not directly yield the mass distribution, as often assumed. Instead, the CO emission is enhanced near the excitation peaks.