The ultimate fate of the universe

A nontechnical work on the observed and theoretical processes underlying the existence of the universe is presented, with consideration given to the eventual culmination of all physical events. The structures and physical behavior of the Galaxy are discussed, as are the expansion of the universe, the basis of the Hubble constant, and redshift measurements. The Cosmological Principle, that the universe is everywhere homogeneous and isotropic about every point, is examined for its implications, as is the measured 3 K background, which indicates that the universe had a beginning. The observed properties and physical dimensions of elementary particles are described and the controversy of an open or closed universe is considered, as are the death of stars. Note is taken of black holes, quasars, and vacuum fluctuations that create virtual fluctuations outside of black holes. The possibility that life will reach its next evolutionary step through the creation of artificial, intelligent beings who will survive human life forms is mentioned. Finally, aspects of a steady state universe, a collapsing universe, and the decay of a proton are investigated.