A comparative study of the evolution of manned and unmanned spaceflight operations

The paper compares some aspects of the evolution of spaceflight operations and ground control in the United States' manned and unmanned space programs. The history is characterized by a shared beginning, a divergence in organizational management and operations techniques, followed by increased capability of ground and spacecraft systems leading to staffing reductions and standardization of operations. Although many differences are inherent in the nature of supporting manned flights compared to unmanned earth-orbiting or deep space missions, a distinct trend of convergence seems to be occurring between the two operational disciplines.